Redaktor:Smrtihlav/pieskovisko: Rozdiel medzi revíziami

Smazaný obsah Přidaný obsah
Smrtihlav (diskusia | príspevky)
d práca
Smrtihlav (diskusia | príspevky)
d práca
Riadok 21:
 
=== Božské velenie ===
Podľa [[Platón|Platónovho]] [[Eutyfron|''Eutyfrona'']] je úloha bohov v určení toho, čo je dobré a zlé buď nepotrebná alebo arbitrárna (absolutistická). [[Teologický voluntarizmus|Argument, že morálka musí byť odvodená od Boha]] a nemôže existovať bez múdreho tvorcu, bol pretrvávajúcim znakom filozofickej i politickej diskusie.<ref>V [[Fiodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij|Dostojevského]] ''[[Bratia Karamazovovci|Bratoch Karamazovovoch]]'' (Kniha 11, kapitola 4) je známy argument: ''Ak Boh nie je, všetko je dovolené'': "'Ale čo sa potom stane z ľudí?' opýtal som sa ho, 'bez Boha a nesmrteľného života? Potom sú všetky veci správne, môžu robiť čo len chcú?'"</ref><ref name="Kant CPR A811">Pre [[Immanuel Kant|Kanta]] bol predpoklad Boha, duše a slobody praktickou obavou. "Morálka ako taká zakladá systém, šťastie nie, ak nie je šírené v presnom pomere k morálke. To je ale možné iba v zrozumiteľnom svete pod múdrym tvorcom a vládcom. Rozum nás núti prijať takého vládcu, spolu so životom v takom svete, alebo všetky zákony morálky považovať len za neúčinné sny..." (''Kritika čistého rozumu'', A811).</ref> Morálne imperatívy ako "vražda je zlo" sú chápané ako [[Božský zákon|božie zákony]], vyžadujúce božského tvorcu zákonov a sudcu. Avšak mnoho ateistov namieta, že zákonné chápanie morálky je [[Falošná analógia|falošnou analógiou]], a že morálka nezávisí na tvorcovi zákonov rovnakým spôsobom ako na ňom závisia zákony.<ref name=":2">Baggini, Julian (2003). ''Atheism: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280424-2.</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] veril v morálku nezávislú od teistickej viery a postuloval, že morálka založená na Bohu "má pravdu iba ako Boh je pravda — stojí a padá na viere v Boha".<ref name="Fortin & Benestad">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=19ccmx1W58IC&pg=PA16 |title=Human Rights, Virtue, and the Common Good |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |quote=That problem was brought home to us with dazzling clarity by Nietzsche, who had reflected more deeply than any of his contemporaries on the implications of godlessness and come to the conclusion that a fatal contradiction lay at the heart of modern theological enterprise: it thought that Christian morality, which it wished to preserve, was independent of Christian dogma, which it rejected. This, in Nietzsche's mind, was an absurdity. It amounted to nothing less than dismissing the architect while trying to keep the building or getting rid of the lawgiver while claiming the protection of the law. |accessdate=2011-04-09 |isbn=978-0-8476-8279-9 |year=1996}}</ref><ref name="Craig & Moreland">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=g8bHRrVu3SsC&pg=PA392 |title=The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |quote=Morality "has truth only if God is truth–it stands or falls with faith in God" (Nietzsche 1968, p. 70). The moral argument for the existence of God essentially takes Nietzsche's assertion as one of its premises: if there is no God, then "there are altogether no moral facts". |accessdate=2011-04-09 |isbn=978-1-4051-7657-6 |date=11 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VgMB9-tMSMoC&pg=PA85 |title=Victorian Subjects |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |quote=Like other mid-nineteenth-century writers, George Eliot was not fully aware of the implications of her humanism, and, as Nietzsche saw, attempted the difficult task of upholding the Christian morality of altruism without faith in the Christian God. |accessdate=2011-04-09 |isbn=978-0-8223-1110-2 |year=1991}}</ref> Pre [[Immanuel Kant|Immanuela Kanta]] dôvod na prispôsobenie sa pravidlám má svoju hodnotu v zmysle 'kategorických imperatívov', ktoré samy v sebe obsahujú zmysel svojho dodržiavania.
 
Existujú [[Normatívna etika|normatívne etické systémy]], ktoré nepotrebujú princípy a pravidlá dané božstvom. Niektoré obsahujú [[Etika cnosti|etiku cnosti]], [[Spoločenská zmluva|spoločenskú zmluvu]], [[Kantova etika|Kantovu etiku]], [[utilitarizmus]] a [[Objektivizmus (Ayn Randová)|objektivizmus]]. [[Sam Harris]] hasnavrhol, proposedže thatrecept moralna prescriptionmorálku (ethicaletické rule makingpravidlá) isnie not justiba anzáležitosť issuevhodná toako beobjekt explored by philosophyfilozofie, butale thatže wemôžme canzmysluplne meaningfully practice apraktizovať [[scienceVeda o morálke|vedu ofo moralitymorálke]]. AnyKaždý suchtakýto scientificvedecký systemsystém must,však nevertheless,musí respondodpovedať tona thekritiku criticismstelesnenú embodied in thev [[naturalisticNaturalistický omyl|naturalistickom fallacyomyle]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Principia Ethica |url=http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.13 |year=1903 |first=G.E. |last=Moore |authorlink=G. E. Moore |accessdate=2011-04-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514054112/http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.13 |archivedate=14 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Filozofi [[Susan Neiman]]<ref>Susan Neiman (6 November 2006). ''Beyond Belief Session 6'' (Conference). Salk Institute, La Jolla, California: The Science Network</ref> a [[Julian Baggini]]<ref name=":2" /> (okrem iných) tvrdia, že chovať sa eticky iba pre božský mandát nie je skutočné etické správanie, ale len slepá poslušnosť. Baggini argumentuje, že ateizmus je pre etiku vyššia báza, vyhlasujúc, že morálny základ mimo náboženských imperatívov je nevyhnutný pre prieskum morálnosti samotných imperatívov — byť schopný rozlíšiť, napríklad, že "zabiješ" je nemorálne aj keď to nejaké náboženstvo prikazuje — a preto sú ateisti vo výhode, lebo sú k týmto posúdeniam náchylnejší.<ref name=":2" /> Súčasný britský politický filozof [[Martin Cohen (philosopher)|Martin Cohen]] ponúkol viac historicky zameraný príklad Biblických príkazov v prospech mučenia a otroctva ako dôkaz toho, ako náboženské príkazy nasledujú politické a sociálne zvyky a nie naopak.<ref>Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao, by Cohen, M, Second edition 2008</ref>
Philosophers [[Susan Neiman]]<ref>{{cite video |people=[[Susan Neiman]] |title=Beyond Belief Session 6 |medium=Conference |publisher=The Science Network |location=[[Salk Institute]], La Jolla, California |date=6 November 2006}}</ref>
and [[Julian Baggini]]<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=40}}</ref>
(among others) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience. Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics, claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves—to be able to discern, for example, that "thou shalt steal" is immoral even if one's religion instructs it—and that atheists, therefore, have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations.<ref>{{harvnb|Baggini|2003|p=43}}</ref>
The contemporary British political philosopher [[Martin Cohen (philosopher)|Martin Cohen]] has offered the more historically telling example of Biblical injunctions in favor of torture and slavery as evidence of how religious injunctions follow political and social customs, rather than vice versa, but also noted that the same tendency seems to be true of supposedly dispassionate and objective philosophers.<ref>101 Ethical Dilemmas, 2nd edition, by Cohen, M., Routledge 2007, pp&nbsp;184–185. (Cohen notes particularly that Plato and Aristotle produced arguments in favour of slavery.)</ref> Cohen extends this argument in more detail in ''Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao'', where he argues that the [[Qur'an]] played a role in perpetuating social codes from the early 7th century despite changes in secular society.<ref>Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao, by Cohen, M, Second edition 2008</ref>
 
=== CriticismKritika of religionnáboženstva ===
{{See also|CriticismKritika of religionnáboženstva}}
SomeNiektorí prominentvýznamní atheists—mostateisti recently— v súčasnosti najmä [[Christopher Hitchens]], [[Daniel Dennett]], [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], anda [[Richard Dawkins]], andnasledujú followingtakých suchmysliteľov thinkers asako [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], [[Voltaire]], anda novelist spisovateľ [[José Saramago]]—have criticized— kritizovali religionsnáboženstvá, citingcitujúc harmfulškodlivé aspectsaspekty ofnáboženských religiouspraktík practicesa and doctrinesdoktrín.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris| 2005}}, {{harvnb|Harris| 2006}}, {{harvnb|Dawkins| 2006}}, {{harvnb|Hitchens| 2007}}, {{harvnb|Russell| 1957}}</ref>
 
[[File:Karl Marx.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Karl Marx]]]]
 
ThePolitický 19th-centuryteoretik Germana politicalsociológ theorist19. and sociologiststoročia Karl Marx callednazýval religionnáboženstvo "thevzdychom sighutláčaného of the oppressed creaturestvorenia, thesrdcom heartbezcitného ofsveta a heartlessdušou world, and the soul of soullessbezduchých conditionspodmienok. ItJe is theto [[opium of theópium peopleľudstva]].". He goes on to say,Pokračoval: "TheZrušenie abolitionnáboženstva ofako religioniluzórneho asšťastia theľudí illusoryje happinesspožiadavkou ofpre the people is the demand for theirich realskutočné happinessšťastie. ToVyzvať callich, onaby themsa tovzdali givesvojich upilúzií theiro illusionssvojom aboutstave, theirje conditionvyzvať isich, toaby callsa onvzdali themstavu, toktorý givevyžaduje upilúzie. aKritika conditionnáboženstva thatje requirespreto illusions.v Thezárodku criticismkritikou oftoho religionúdolia issĺz, therefore,ktorého insvätostánkom embryo, the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is theje halonáboženstvo."<ref>Marx, K. 1976. Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right. Collected Works, v. 3. New York.</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]] saidpovedal, thatže "everykaždá religiousnáboženská ideamyšlienka anda everykaždá idea ofBoha Godje isnevyčísliteľná unutterablešpinavosť vileness&nbsp;... oftoho the most dangerousnajhoršieho kinddruhu, 'contagioninfekcia' of the mosttoho abominablenajodpornejšieho kinddruhu. MillionsMilióny of sinshriechov, filthyšpinavé deedsskutky, actsakty ofnásilia violencea andfyzické physical contagions&nbsp;nákazy... are faroveľa lessmenej dangerousnebezpečné thanako the subtlerafinovaná, spiritualspirituálna idea ofBoha Godnavlečená decked out in thedo smartestnajmúdrejších ideologicalideologických costumeskostýmov&nbsp;..."<ref name="MartinAmis">Martin Amis(2003). ''Koba the Dread''; London: Vintage Books; {{ISBN|978-0-09-943802-1}}; pp. 30–31.</ref>
 
Sam Harris kritizuje závislosť západných náboženstiev na božskej autorite ako prepožičiavanie sa [[Autoritarizmus|autoritarizmu]] a [[dogma|dogmatizmu]].<ref>Harris, Sam (apríl 2006). "[https://samharris.org/the-myth-of-secular-moral-chaos/ The Myth of Secular Moral Chaos]." Free Inquiry 26 (3). ISSN 0272-0701</ref>There is a correlation between [[religious fundamentalism]] and [[Extrinsic religious orientation|extrinsic religion]] (when religion is held because it serves ulterior interests)<ref name="Moreira-almeida2006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006005000006 |last1=Moreira-almeida |first1=A. |last2=Neto |first2=F. |last3=Koenig |first3=H.G. |year=2006 |title=Religiousness and mental health: a review |journal=Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria |volume=28 |pages=242–250 |pmid=16924349 |issue=3 |ref=harv}}</ref> and authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.<ref>See for example: {{cite journal |last1=Kahoe |first1=R.D. |date=June 1977 |title=Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=179–182 |jstor=1385749 |doi=10.2307/1385749 |ref=harv}} Also see: {{cite journal |last1=Altemeyer |first1=Bob |first2=Bruce |last2=Hunsberger |year=1992 |title=Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice |journal=[[International Journal for the Psychology of Religion]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=113–133 |doi=10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5 |ref=harv}}</ref>
Sam Harris criticizes Western religion's reliance on divine authority as lending itself to [[authoritarianism]] and [[dogma]]tism.{{sfn|Harris|2006a}}
There is a correlation between [[religious fundamentalism]] and [[Extrinsic religious orientation|extrinsic religion]] (when religion is held because it serves ulterior interests)<ref name="Moreira-almeida2006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006005000006 |last1=Moreira-almeida |first1=A. |last2=Neto |first2=F. |last3=Koenig |first3=H.G. |year=2006 |title=Religiousness and mental health: a review |journal=Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria |volume=28 |pages=242–250 |pmid=16924349 |issue=3 |ref=harv}}</ref> and authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.<ref>See for example: {{cite journal |last1=Kahoe |first1=R.D. |date=June 1977 |title=Intrinsic Religion and Authoritarianism: A Differentiated Relationship |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=179–182 |jstor=1385749 |doi=10.2307/1385749 |ref=harv}} Also see: {{cite journal |last1=Altemeyer |first1=Bob |first2=Bruce |last2=Hunsberger |year=1992 |title=Authoritarianism, Religious Fundamentalism, Quest, and Prejudice |journal=[[International Journal for the Psychology of Religion]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=113–133 |doi=10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5 |ref=harv}}</ref>
These arguments—combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion, such as the [[Crusades]], [[inquisition]]s, [[Witch-hunt|witch trials]], and [[Religious terrorism|terrorist attacks]]—have been used in response to claims of beneficial effects of belief in religion.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harris |first=Sam |authorlink=Sam Harris (author) |title=An Atheist Manifesto |url=http://www.truthdig.com/dig/print/200512_an_atheist_manifesto |accessdate=2011-04-09 |publisher=[[Truthdig]] |year=2005 |quote=In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516191405/http://www.truthdig.com/dig/print/200512_an_atheist_manifesto |archivedate=16 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Believers counter-argue that some [[state atheism|regimes that espouse atheism]], such as the [[Soviet Union]], have also been guilty of mass murder.<ref name="John S. Feinberg, Paul D. Feinberg">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nl-f5SKq9mgC&pg=PA697 |last1=Feinberg |first1=John S. |authorlink1=John S. Feinberg |last2=Feinberg |first2=Paul D. |authorlink2=Paul D. Feinberg |title=Ethics for a Brave New World |publisher=[[Greg Koukl|Stand To Reason]] |quote=Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.' Since then I have spent well-nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.' |accessdate=2007-10-18 |isbn=978-1-58134-712-8 |year=2010}}</ref><ref name="Totalitarianism and Atheism">{{cite web |url=http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/answering-atheists/answering-atheists-arguments.html |title=Answering Atheist's Arguments |publisher=Catholic Education Resource Center |last=D'Souza |first=Dinesh |authorlink=Dinesh D'Souza |accessdate=2011-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028215055/http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/answering-atheists/answering-atheists-arguments.html |archive-date=28 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In response to those claims, atheists such as Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins have stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic [[Marxism]], and that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism.{{sfn|Dawkins|2006|p=291}}<ref>[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/harris06/harris06_index.html 10 myths and 10 truths about Atheism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525005256/http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/harris06/harris06_index.html |date=25 May 2013 }} Sam Harris</ref>